Theravada Buddhism: A Brief Introduction to Its History and Teachings

Theravada is the dominant form of Buddhism in most of southeast Asia, including Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. It claims about 100 million adherents worldwide. Its doctrines are taken from the Pali Tipitaka or Pali Canon and its basic teachings begin with the Four Noble Truths.

Theravada is also one of the two primary schools of Buddhism; the other is called Mahayana. Some will tell you there are three primary schools, and the third is Vajrayana. But all schools of Vajrayana are built upon Mahayana philosophy and call themselves Mahayana, also.

Above all, Theravada emphasizes direct insight gained through critical analysis and experience rather than blind faith. 

The Oldest School of Buddhism?

Theravada makes two historical claims for itself. One is that it is the oldest form of Buddhism being practiced today and the other is that it is directly descended from the original sangha -- the Buddha's own disciples -- and Mahayana is not.

The first claim probably is true. Sectarian differences began to develop within Buddhism very early, probably within a few years of the historical Buddha's death. Theravada developed from a sect called Vibhajjavada that was established in Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BCE. Mahayana didn't emerge as a distinctive school until early in the first millennium CE.

The other claim is harder to verify. Both Theravada and Mahayana emerged from the sectarian divisions that occurred after the Buddha's passing. Whether one is closer to "original" Buddhism is a matter of opinion.

Theravada is distinctive from the other major school of Buddhism, Mahayana, in several ways.

Little Sectarian Division

For the most part, unlike Mahayana, there are no significant sectarian divisions within Theravada. There are, of course, variations in practice from one temple to another, but doctrines are not wildly different within Theravada.

Most Theravada temples and monasteries are administered by monastic organizations within national boundaries. Often, Theravada Buddhist institutions and clergy in Asia enjoy some government sponsorship but are also subject to some government supervision.

Individual Enlightenment

Theravada emphasizes individual enlightenment; the ideal is to become an arhat(sometimes arahant), which means "worthy one" in Pali. An arhat is a person who has realized enlightenment and freed himself from the cycle of birth and death.

Beneath the arhat ideal is an understanding of the doctrine of anatman -- the nature of the self -- that differs from that of the Mahayana. Very basically, Theravada considers anatman to mean that an individual's ego or personality is a tether and delusion. Once freed of this delusion, the individual may enjoy the bliss of Nirvana.

Mahayana, on the other hand, considers all physical forms to be void of intrinsic, separate self.  Therefore, according to Mahayana, "individual enlightenment" is an oxymoron. The ideal in Mahayana is to enable all beings to be enlightened together.

Self-Power

Theravada teaches that enlightenment comes entirely through one's own efforts, without help from gods or other outside forces. Some Mahayana schools teach self-power as well while others do not.

Literature

Theravada accepts only the Pali Tipitika as scripture. There are a large number of other sutras that are venerated by Mahayana that Theravada does not accept as legitimate. 

Pali Versus Sanskrit

Theravada Buddhism uses the Pali rather than the Sanskrit form of common terms. For example, sutta instead of sutra; dhamma instead of dharma.

Meditation

The primary means of realizing enlightenment in the Theravada tradition is through Vipassana or "insight" meditation. Vipassana emphasizes disciplined self-observation of body and thoughts and how they interconnect.

Some schools of Mahayana also emphasize meditation, but other schools of Mahayana do not meditate.

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Rinzai Zen

Rinzai is the Japanese name of a school of Zen Buddhism. It originated in China as the Linji school. Rinzai Zen is distinguished by its emphasis on the kensho experience to realize enlightenment and the use of koan contemplation in zazen.

In China, the Linji school is the dominant surviving school of Zen (called Chan in China). Linji also strongly influenced the development of Zen (Seon) in Korea. Rinzai Zen is one of the two dominant schools of Zen in Japan; the other is Soto.

History of Rinzai (Linji)

Rinzai Zen originated in China, where it is called Linji. The Linji school was founded by Linji Yixuan ( Lin-chi I-hsuan, d. 866), who taught in a temple in Hebei Province in northeast China.

Master Linji is remembered for his outrageous, even harsh, teaching style. He favored a kind of "shock" Zen, in which skillful application of shouts and punches would startle a student into an enlightenment experience. Much of what we know about Master LInji is from a book of his collected sayings called the Linji Lu, or record of Linji, known in Japanese as the Rinzairoku.

Read More: Linji Yixuan

The Linji school remained obscure until the Song Dynasty (960-1279). It was during this period that the Linji school developed its distinctive practice of koan contemplation.

Read More: Introduction to Koans

The classic koan collections were compiled in this period. The three best known collections are:

• The Biyan Lu (in Japanese, the Hekiganroku, commonly translated "The Blue Cliff Record"), compiled in its final form by Yuanwu Keqin (1063-1135)
• The Congrong Lu (in Japanese, the Shoyoroku, commonly translated "The Book of Equanimity" or "The Book of Serenity"), compiled by Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091-1157). Note that Master Hongzhi actually was of the Caodong school, not Linji.

• The Wumenguan (in Japanese, the Mumonkan, commonly translated "The Gateless Gate"), compiled by Wumen Hui-k'ai (1183-1260)

Buddhism, including the Linji school, went into a period of decline after the Song Dynasty. However, Linji Chan Buddhism is still widely practiced in China.

Transmission to Japan

In the 11th century Linji split into two schools, called in Japanese Rinzai-yogi and Rinzai-oryo. Myoan Eisai brought Rinzai-oryo to Japan late in the 12th century. This was the first school of Zen in Japan. Rinzai-oryo combined Rinzai with esoteric practices and elements of Tendai Buddhism.

The other school, Rinzai-yogi, was established in Japan by Nanpo Jomyo (1235–1308), who received transmission in China and returned in 1267. 

It wasn't long before Rinzai Zen attracted the patronage of the nobility, especially the samurai. A lot of perks come with having wealthy patrons, and many Rinzai teachers were happy to cater to them.

Read More: Samurai Zen

Not all Rinzai masters sought the patronage of samurai. The O-to-kan lineage -- named after its three founding teachers, Nampo Jomyo (or Daio Kokushi, 1235-1308), Shuho Myocho (or Daito Kokushi, 1282-1338), and Kanzan Egen (or Kanzen Kokushi, 1277-1360) -- maintained distance from urban centers and did not seek the favor of the samurai or nobility.

By the 17th century, Rinzai Zen had become stagnant. Hakuin Ekaku (1686-1769), of the O-to-kan lineage, was a great reformer who revitalized Rinzai and refocused it on rigorous zazen.

He systematized koan practice, recommending a particular progression of koans for maximum effect. Hakuin's system is still followed in Rinzai Zen today. Hakuin also is the originator of the famous "one hand" koan.

Read More: The Life, Teachings and Art of Zen Master Hakuin

Rinzai Zen Today

Rinzai Zen in Japan today is very much Hakuin Zen, and all living Rinzai Zen teachers are of Hakuin's O-to-kan teaching lineage.

Unlike Soto Zen, which is more or less organized under the authority of the Soto Shu organization, Rinzai in Japan is a tradition of informally affiliated temples teaching Hakuin's Rinzai Zen. 

Rinzai Zen was first introduced to the West through the writing of D.T. Suzuki, and Rinzai Zen is being taught and practiced in the Americas, Australia and Europe.

Also Known As: Rinzai-shu, Lin-chi-tsung (Chinese)

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Buddha Nature

Buddha Nature is a term used often in Mahayana Buddhism that is not easy to define. To add to the confusion, understanding of what it is varies from school to school.

Basically, Buddha Nature is the fundamental nature of all beings. Part of this fundamental nature is the tenet that all beings may realize enlightenment. Beyond this basic definition, one can find all manner of commentaries and theories and doctrines about Buddha Nature that may be more difficult to understand. This is because Buddha Nature is not part of our conventional, conceptual understanding of things, and language does not function well to explain it.

This article is a beginner's introduction to Buddha Nature.

Origin of the Buddha Nature Doctrine

The origin of the Buddha Nature doctrine can be traced to something the historical Buddha said, as recorded in the Pali Tipitika (Pabhassara Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya 1.49-52):

"Luminous, monks, is the mind. And it is defiled by incoming defilements. The uninstructed run-of-the-mill person doesn't discern that as it actually is present, which is why I tell you that – for the uninstructed run-of-the-mill person – there is no development of the mind.

"Luminous, monks, is the mind. And it is freed from incoming defilements. The well-instructed disciple of the noble ones discerns that as it actually is present, which is why I tell you that – for the well-instructed disciple of the noble ones – there is development of the mind." [Thanissaro Bhikkhu translation]

This passage gave rise to many theories and interpretations within early Buddhism. Monastics and scholars also struggled with questions about anatta, no self, and how a no-self could be reborn, affected by karma, or become a Buddha. The luminous mind that is present whether one is aware of it or not offered an answer.

Theravada Buddhism did not develop a doctrine of Buddha Nature. However, other early schools of Buddhism began to describe the luminous mind as a subtle, basic consciousness present in all sentient beings, or as a potentiality for enlightenment that pervades everywhere.

Buddha Nature in China and Tibet

In the 5th century, a text called the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra – or the Nirvana Sutra – was translated from Sanskrit into Chinese. The Nirvana Sutra is one of three Mahayana sutras that make up a collection called the Tathagatagarbha ("womb of the Buddhas") sutras. Today some scholars believe these texts were developed from earlier Mahasanghika texts. Mahasanghika was an early sect of Buddhism that emerged in the 4th century BCE and which was an important forerunner of Mahayana.

The Tathagatagarbha sutras are credited with presenting the fully developed doctrine of Buddha Dhatu, or Buddha Nature. The Nirvana Sutra, in particular, was enormously influential in the development of Buddhism in China. Buddha Nature remains an essential teaching in the several schools of Mahayana Buddhism that emerged in China, such as T'ien T'ai and Chan (Zen).

At least some of the Tathagatagarbha sutras also were translated into Tibetan, probably late in the 8th century. Buddha Nature is an important teaching in Tibetan Buddhism, although the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism do not entirely agree on what it is. For example, the Sakya and Nyingma schools emphasize that Buddha Nature is the essential nature of the mind, while Gelugpa treats it more as a potentiality within the mind.

Note that "Tathagatagarbha" sometimes appears in texts as a synonym for Buddha Nature, although it doesn't mean exactly the same thing.

Is Buddha Nature a Self?

Sometimes Buddha Nature is described as a "true self" or "original self." And sometimes it is said that everyone has Buddha Nature. This is not wrong. But sometimes people hear this and imagine that Buddha Nature is something like a soul, or some attribute that we possess, like intelligence or a bad temper. This is not a correct view.

Smashing the "me and my Buddha nature" dichotomy appears to be the point of a famous dialogue between the Chan master Chao-chou Ts'ung-shen (778-897) and a monk, who inquired if a dog has Buddha nature. Chao-chou's answer – Mu (no, or does not have) has been contemplated as a koan by generations of Zen students.

Eihei Dogen (1200-1253) "made a paradigm shift when he translated a phrase rendered in the Chinese version of the Nirvana Sutra from 'All sentient beings have Buddha nature' to 'All existents are Buddha nature,'" wrote Buddhist scholar Paula Arai in Bringing Zen Home, the Healing Heart of Japanese Women's Rituals. "Moreover, by removing an explicit verb the whole phrase becomes an activity. The implications of this grammatical shift continue to reverberate. Some could interpret this move as the logical conclusion of a nondualistic philosophy."

Very simply, Dogen's point is that Buddha Nature is not something we have, it is what we are. And this something that we are is an activity or process that involves all beings. Dogen also emphasized that practice is not something that will give us enlightenment but instead is the activity of our already enlightened nature, or Buddha Nature.

Let's go back to the original idea of a luminous mind that is always present, whether we are aware of it or not. The Tibetan teacher Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche described Buddha Nature this way:

"... our fundamental nature of mind is a luminous expanse of awareness that is beyond all conceptual fabrication and completely free from the movement of thoughts. It is the union of emptiness and clarity, of space and radiant awareness that is endowed with supreme and immeasurable qualities. From this basic nature of emptiness everything is expressed; from this everything arises and manifests."

Another way of putting this is to say that Buddha Nature is "something" that you are, together with all beings. And this "something" is already enlightened. Because beings cling to a false idea of a finite self, set apart from everything else, they do not experience themselves as Buddhas. But when beings clarify the nature of their existence they experience the Buddha Nature that was always there.

If this explanation is difficult to understand at first, do not be discouraged. It is better to not try to "figure it out." Instead, keep open, and let it clarify itself.

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What Do Buddhists Mean by 'Enlightenment'?

Wat Do Buddhists Mean by 'Enlightenment'?

Most people have heard that the Buddha was enlightened and that Buddhists seek enlightenment. But what does that mean? "Enlightenment" is an English word that can mean several things. In the West, the Age of Enlightenment was a philosophical movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that promoted science and reason over myth and superstition, so in Western culture, enlightenment is often associated with intellect and knowledge. But Buddhist enlightenment is something else.

Enlightenment and Satori

To add to the confusion, "enlightenment" has been used as the translation for several Asian words that don't mean the same thing. For example, several decades ago English speakers were introduced to Buddhism through the writing of D.T. Suzuki (1870-1966), a Japanese scholar who had lived for a time as a Rinzai Zen monk. Suzuki used "enlightenment" to translate the Japanese word satori, derived from the verb satoru, "to know."

This translation was not without justification. But in usage, satori usually refers to an experience of insight into the true nature of reality. It has been compared to the experience of opening a door, but to open a door still implies a separation from what's inside the door. Partly through Suzuki's influence, the idea of spiritual enlightenment as a sudden, blissful, transformative experience became embedded in Western culture. However, that's misleading.

Although Suzuki and some of the first Zen teachers in the West explained enlightenment as an experience that one can have at moments, most Zen teachers and Zen texts tell you that enlightenment is not an experience but a permanent state: a stepping through the door permanently. Not even satori is enlightenment itself. In this, Zen is in alignment with how enlightenment is viewed in other branches of Buddhism. 

Enlightenment and Bodhi (Theravada)

Bodhi, a Sanskrit and Pali word that means "awakening," also is often translated as "enlightenment."

In Theravada Buddhism, bodhi is associated with the perfection of insight into the Four Noble Truths, which end dukkha (suffering, stress, dissatisfaction). The person who has perfected this insight and abandoned all defilements is an arhat, one who is liberated from the cycle of samsara, or endless rebirth. While alive, he enters a sort of conditional nirvana, and at death, he enjoys the peace of complete nirvana and escape from the cycle of rebirth. 

In the Atthinukhopariyaayo Sutta of the Pali Tipitaka (Samyutta Nikaya 35.152), the Buddha said:

"Then, monks, this is the criterion whereby a monk, apart from faith, apart from persuasion, apart from inclination, apart from rational speculation, apart from delight in views and theories, could affirm the attainment of enlightenment: 'Birth is destroyed, the holy life has been accomplished, what was to be done is done, there is no further living in this world.'"

Enlightenment and Bodhi (Mahayana)

In Mahayana Buddhism, bodhi is associated with the perfection of wisdom, or sunyata. This is the teaching that all phenomena are empty of self-essence.

Most of us perceive the things and beings around us as distinctive and permanent. But this view is a projection. Instead, the phenomenal world is an ever-changing nexus of causes and conditions or Dependent Origination. Things and beings, empty of self-essence, are neither real nor not real: the doctrine of The Two Truths. Thoroughly perceiving sunyata dissolves the fetters of self-clinging that cause our unhappiness. The dual way of distinguishing between self and other yields to a permanent nondual outlook in which all things are interrelated. 

In Mahayana Buddhism, the idea of practice is that of the bodhisattva, the enlightened being who remains in the phenomenal world to bring all to enlightenment. The bodhisattva ideal is more than altruism; it reflects the reality that none of us is separate. "Individual enlightenment" is an oxymoron.

Enlightenment in Vajrayana 

A branch of Mahayana Buddhism, the Tantric schools of Vajrayana Buddhism, believes that enlightenment can come all at once in a transformative moment. This goes hand-in-hand with the belief in Vajrayana that the various passions and hindrances of life, rather than being obstacles, can be fuel for transformation into enlightenment that can occur in a single moment, or at least in this lifetime. Key to this practice is a belief in inherent Buddha Nature, the innate perfection of our inner natures that simply waits for us to recognize it. This belief in the ability to achieve enlightenment instantly is not the same as the Sartori phenomenon, however. For Vajrayana Buddhists, enlightenment is not a glimpse through the door but a permanent state.

Enlightenment and Buddha Nature

According to legend, when the Buddha realized enlightenment he said something to the effect of "Isn't it remarkable! All beings are already enlightened!" This state is what is known as Buddha Nature, which forms a core part of Buddhist practice in some schools. In Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha Nature is the inherent Buddhahood of all beings. Because all beings are already Buddha, the task is not to attain enlightenment but to realize it.

The Chinese master Huineng (638-713), the Sixth Patriarch of Ch'an (Zen), compared Buddhahood to a moon obscured by clouds. The clouds represent ignorance and defilements. When these are dropped away, the moon, already present, is revealed.

Experiences of Insight

What about those sudden, blissful, transformative experiences? You may well have had these moments and felt you were onto something spiritually profound. Such an experience, while pleasant and sometimes accompanied by genuine insight, is not, by itself, enlightenment. For most practitioners, a blissful spiritual experience not grounded in the practice of the Eightfold Path to achieve enlightenment will not likely be transformative. Chasing blissful states can itself become a form of desire and attachment, and the path toward enlightenment is to surrender clinging and desire. 

 Zen teacher Barry Magid said of Master Hakuin, in "Nothing Is Hidden":

"Post-satori practice for Hakuin meant finally ceasing to be preoccupied with his own personal condition and attainment and to devote himself and his practice to helping and teaching others. Finally, at long last, he realized that true enlightenment is a matter of endless practice and compassionate functioning, not something that occurs once and for all in one great moment on the cushion."

The teacher and monk Shunryu Suzuki (1904-1971) said of enlightenment:

"It is a kind of mystery that for people who have no experience of enlightenment, enlightenment is something wonderful. But if they attain it, it is nothing. But yet it is not nothing. Do you understand? For a mother with children, having children is nothing special. That is zazen. So, if you continue this practice, more and more you will acquire something—nothing special, but nevertheless something. You may say 'universal nature' or 'Buddha nature' or 'enlightenment.' You may call it by many names, but for the person who has it, it is nothing, and it is something."

Both legend and documented evidence suggest that skilled practitioners and enlightened beings may be capable of extraordinary, even supernatural mental powers. However, these skills are not evidence of enlightenment, nor are they somehow essential to it. Here, too, we are warned not to chase these mental skills at the risk of mistaking the finger pointing at the moon for the moon itself.

If you wonder if you have become enlightened, it is almost certain you have not. The only way to test one's insight is to present it to a dharma teacher. Don't be dismayed if your achievement falls apart under a teacher's scrutiny. False starts and mistakes are a necessary part of the path, and if and when you achieve enlightenment, it will be built on a solid foundation and you will have no mistake about it. 

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